
It makes sense to
start a talk about the Renaissance and the Reformation by looking at a library.
The library at San Lorenzo in Florence had books and functioned almost like a
public library. In Florence, the Medici family supported humanistic education.
They believed that the more educated a person was, the better they could
participate in government and become a more moral person.
At the beginning of what became known as the Reformation,
books and the way information was shared became especially important. A major
innovation during this time was the invention of the movable type printing
press. To us, that might not seem like a big deal, but it completely changed
how information was spread. A helpful comparison is the way copy machines and
the internet allowed people to create and share content without needing
permission from a central authority. Just like social media helped spread ideas
during events like the revolution in Egypt, printing allowed people in the 15th
and 16th centuries to share new ideas more freely.
Johannes Gutenberg is usually credited with inventing the
movable type printing press in the 1450s, though others were working on similar
ideas around the same time. Movable type was actually invented earlier in
China, but it wasn’t widely adopted there—possibly due to the complexity of the
Chinese writing system, which includes thousands of characters.
Gutenberg’s key insight was that instead of carving a full
page of text, you could make small, reusable letter blocks. These could be
arranged to form words and lines, then reset and
used again.
The letters were organized alphabetically in boxes, and a typesetter would
place them in a frame to form a page. They had to be set backward, like a
mirror image, because printing reverses the layout.
This process was much
faster and cheaper than carving each page by hand, which could take weeks.
Typesetting a page might take only a day or two, and dozens of copies could be
printed from a single setup. Once finished, the letters were sorted back into their
boxes for reuse. This method lowered the cost of producing books dramatically
and made printed material far more accessible.
After printing maybe 50 or 100 copies of a page, the printer
could reuse all the letters again for a new page. This made printing way faster
and much cheaper—cutting costs by about 95%. It was such a change that even the
idea of children’s alphabet blocks comes from the way these letters were stored
and used during printing.
One person who used
this printing revolution was Erasmus of Rotterdam. He was a major thinker
during the Reformation and wrote a book in 1503 called The Handbook of the
Christian Knight. In it, Erasmus said people should read the Bible for
themselves, think about its meaning, and try to live more like Jesus. This idea
wasn’t totally new—people like Saint Francis had pushed similar ideas
earlier—but Erasmus helped popularize it by publishing it in book form.
He also made a new translation of the Bible by going back to
the original Hebrew, Greek, and Latin sources. That made his version of the
Bible more accurate and readable for scholars of the time. Once people started
reading it for themselves, they began to question the church’s teachings and
how information had been controlled.
Most students are taught that the church didn’t allow regular
people to read the Bible. While that’s partly true, it wasn’t just about
control. Books, even printed ones, were expensive, and not everyone was
literate. Still, Erasmus's ideas encouraged people to read for themselves and
ask questions.
His work had a big impact on Martin Luther. Luther was born
to a peasant family, though his father was fairly wealthy and wanted Martin to
move up in the world. He sent Luther to study law. One day, while traveling
home across a field, Luther got caught in a thunderstorm. A lightning strike
hit nearby, and he panicked. He dove into the mud and made a vow to God that if
he survived, he would dedicate his life to God and become a monk.
When he made it home safely, he remembered the promise and
followed through, even though his father wasn’t happy about it. As a monk,
Luther took his vows seriously—maybe too
seriously. His
superiors noticed and asked him to read more theological texts to help him
balance his thinking.
Luther read works by Saint Augustine and other
theologians. One idea stood out to him: that people could be saved through
faith alone. This idea of salvation by faith—rather than by doing good
deeds—helped him ease his own guilt and anxiety. It was also something he found
in the Bible, which made it even more important to him. This idea eventually
became a core part of his beliefs and actions later during the Reformation.
Martin Luther really thought deeply about these issues. He
was educated and committed to his beliefs, and his thinking came from the humanistic
tradition that had been developing since the 1300s in places like Florence and
Rome. This tradition focused on critical thinking, and Luther became one of the
people who took it seriously. He read Erasmus, thought about salvation, and
found the idea of salvation by faith—the belief that one could be saved
through belief in God rather than by doing good works—especially important.
This all came together for him when he saw what he believed
to be corruption within the Catholic Church. Around that time, there was a
Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel who worked with Pope Leo X, a member of the
Medici family. Pope Leo had spent a lot of money and was looking for ways to
refill the papal treasury. So, they increased the sale of indulgences—documents
people could buy that supposedly reduced their time in purgatory. These
were sold widely, and salesmen were sent out to promote them.
To Martin Luther,
this idea seemed totally wrong. He didn’t think someone could buy their way
into heaven. The sale of indulgences had been around before, but under Pope Leo
X, they became a major source of income. Alongside this, Leo’s advisors also
pushed the idea of papal infallibility, which was the claim that the
pope could not be wrong when making decisions about doctrine. While the idea
had been around before, it hadn’t been clearly stated in this way. Some of
these declarations even suggested the pope had authority over the Bible itself.
Luther reacted by writing a list of 95 points of concern—what
we call his 95 Theses. He didn’t actually nail them to a church door in
Wittenberg, as many people believe. Instead, he sent a letter to the pope and
to Tetzel, calling out what he saw as abuse and overreach in the church. He
mostly focused on the sale of indulgences and didn’t even go into papal
infallibility at first.
Tetzel and other church leaders were furious. They accused
Luther of heresy and summoned him to defend his ideas. This led to a formal
meeting called the Diet of Worms in 1521. The term diet here
means a council or formal assembly, and Worms is a city in present-day Germany.
This meeting was part of the Holy Roman Empire’s way of handling political and
religious debates.
Luther was promised safe conduct—meaning they guaranteed his
safety even if he was found guilty. He went, explained his views, and was asked
to recant, or take back, what he had written. At first, the focus was on
indulgences, but the discussion shifted to the idea of papal infallibility.
According to historian Andrew Fix of Lafayette University, the church pressed
Luther hard on this
issue. Luther said no—he could not agree that the pope was infallible. That
statement was a turning point.
After the meeting, Luther had 48 hours to leave town. His
refusal to back down from his beliefs, especially his rejection of papal
infallibility, marked a key moment in the conflict between reformers and church
authorities.
After Martin Luther was found guilty of heresy, he was
excommunicated by the Catholic Church. But one of the local nobles helped him
escape and hid him for a while. Word of what Luther had done spread quickly,
and many people supported him. Luther probably never intended to spark a
large-scale rebellion, but that’s what happened. A lot of people, especially in
the northern parts of Europe like Germany and the Netherlands, were frustrated
with the Catholic Church—not just over indulgences, but also over taxes and
other ways the Church had control over their lives. People didn’t want to keep
sending money to Rome or have Italian Church leaders influencing their
governments.
Luther ended up becoming a kind of symbol for resistance
against Church control, even if he didn’t plan for that to happen.
This whole movement also affected art. For example, Lucas
Cranach, a German artist who supported Luther’s ideas, made prints that were
basically visual arguments for Reformation beliefs. One of his woodcuts uses a
scene from Matthew, chapter 21, where Jesus enters the temple and throws
out the merchants and money changers. According to the story, Jesus said, “My
house shall be a house of prayer, but you are making it a den of thieves.” This
was about stopping people from doing business inside a sacred space on the
Sabbath, which was against Jewish law.
In Cranach’s woodcut, that story is updated. On the left
panel, Jesus is shown in 1500s-style clothing, throwing out merchants dressed
like German businessmen. The apostles are behind him. On the right panel, it
shows the pope seated with a table in front of him, counting money and
indulgences. The top of that panel is labeled A. Christie, short for Antichristus—meaning
Antichrist. The idea here is that while Jesus acted to clean up religion, the
pope was doing the opposite, focused on wealth. It’s set up as a diptych,
or two-panel image, showing this contrast.
This kind of visual propaganda wasn’t limited to art.
Pamphlets and broadsheets—single printed pages meant for wide
distribution—were used to share Reformation ideas. By the 1540s, Martin
Luther’s writings were published all over the Holy Roman Empire. One broadsheet
published in Wittenberg was titled “Roman Devil” (Der Römer Teufel) and
used bold imagery. It showed a Hellmouth, a popular image in medieval
art, which was thought to be the entrance to Hell where the damned would be
dragged during the Last Judgment.
In the print, there’s
a figure sitting on a flaming stairway being crowned by demons. He’s got donkey
ears and is wearing the papal tiara, the triple crown worn by popes.
Though he looks like he’s praying, he’s shown being pulled into Hell. This is
another example of how artists and writers during this period used familiar
symbols and updated them to match their views about the Church. These images
weren’t just illustrations—they were tools meant to convince people that the
pope and the Church had lost their way.
This print ties into some of the ideas that were already
being developed earlier in art and literature, like what we saw with Giotto
in the 1300s. That work was still very much Catholic. Over time, ideas about
the pope’s role began to shift, especially through the writing of figures like Dante
and eventually Martin Luther, who believed the role of the pope had become
corrupt.
In terms of art, the rise of printmaking really
changed the game, especially in the north. Albrecht Dürer, a German artist, was
the son of a goldsmith and trained in various techniques, including
printmaking. He also traveled to Italy and was exposed to Renaissance ideas. As
the Protestant Reformation spread, and the Catholic Church lost influence in
parts of northern
Europe, many churches
were stripped of their artwork. Some art was even burned or removed. Stained
glass windows were broken. Artists who used to rely on Church commissions were
out of work, and many of them either went to Italy or had to figure out a new
way to make a living—especially if they supported Protestant ideas.
Dürer found one way around that by making prints and selling
subscriptions. It worked a lot like a magazine: you could subscribe and receive
a series of printed images. Prints were cheaper than paintings and could be
made in multiples, which let him reach more people and possibly even earn more
money. Instead of making one painting for one buyer, he could make hundreds of
copies and sell them individually.
But these prints also needed to line up with the beliefs of
his audience. In Protestant areas, religious art was only acceptable if it
clearly supported Christian teachings. Art couldn’t just be decorative or
secular anymore. It had to be focused on religious instruction or moral ideas.
One of Dürer’s best-known prints from this period is called Knight,
Death, and the Devil. While not directly quoting anyone, this piece lines
up with the idea from Erasmus’s Handbook of the Christian Knight.
That book talks about the idea that a Christian should be spiritually
strong—like a knight—protected by faith the way a knight is protected by armor.
In the image, there’s a knight riding forward. Up in the
background is a castle, which might be a symbolic reference to the City of
God—a spiritual goal in Christian theology. The knight himself seems calm
and focused. Right beside him is a skeletal figure holding an hourglass—this is
a reference to memento mori, a Latin phrase meaning “remember that you
will die.” Behind him is a creature representing the devil. The devil looks
like he’s following, trying to distract or challenge the knight.
At the knight’s feet is a small dog, which could be a symbol
of loyalty or faithfulness. There’s also a lizard or salamander near the
ground, which might be meant to represent temptation or evil. At the very
bottom is a skull, another memento mori symbol, reminding the viewer of
mortality.
There’s also a little signature plaque worked into the image.
It says 1513 and includes Dürer’s monogram—“AD”—which acted like his logo. The
whole print was made with copperplate engraving, a technique that allowed for
really fine detail and multiple reproductions. These prints would have been
sold to individuals, especially those who supported the ideas of Martin Luther
or were part of the Protestant movement.
Imagine having a print like Knight, Death, and the Devil
in your home. If you were raising a kid and wanted to teach them to be a good
Christian, you might pull out this image and use it to explain how to resist
temptation, how to stay faithful, and what it means to live a moral life. These
prints were copper engravings, and they were detailed and reusable. Later,
we’ll look at how copper engraving differs from woodcut and intaglio
printing.
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